Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about substance use and abuse Essay Example for Free

Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about substance use and abuse Essay In discovering about substance use and abuse one issue encountered are the inevitable ethical issues that occur. In Mestel and Concars study for example, sensitive data was collected. Sharing this sensitive data wit hthe researchers may have caused participants unnecessary anxiety or embarrassment if for example the urine test showed that they had used cocaine. This inevitably leads to ethical issues due to the unpleasant emotions participants may have been subjected to. Similarly in Robinson et als study, participants may have experienced unpleasant emotions such as embarrassment and ill ease as a result of the personal nature of the questions asked. From the two studies we can see that ethics is often a factor when exploring the issue of substance use and abuse however substance abuse is, by definition, against social expectations and consequently is always likely to incur ethical dilemmas when researchers attempt to discover substance use and abuse. Another difficulty incurred when attempting to explore substance use and abuse is social desirability. Social desirability is the term given to the situation in which people give answers that are contrary or different to their beliefs because their alternative answer is more socially acceptable. In Moolchan et als study for example personal data was collected and in order to present themselves in abetter light people may have lied when giving their answer responding by saying that their parent didnt smoke when in fact they did for example. Similarly in Landos study baseline data was collected by asking participants to keep a diary detailing their smoking for one week. Participants may have recorded false information because they felt this false information would be more socially acceptable. Social desirability can lead to results which are invalid and resultantly lead to a lack of validity as the study will not record peoples true response. Another difficulty in discovering substance use and abuse is the issue of generalisability. Generalisability is the term used to define the extent to which results from one sample of participants can be applied to wider groups. In Griffiths study for example the findings may not be able to generalised to a country such as Australia as the sample used was not representative. Similarly Murrays study conducted in 1988 had a sample which was exclusively composed of adolescents and consequently it could not be applied to the wider population. In reality however a study is likely to never be truly representative to a global extent and in doing so such a diverse sample may make it hard for clear results to be distinguished due to cultural differences. Research into substance use and abuse may also incur the difficulty of ethnocentric bias. This is the tendency to perceive the world from you own cultural group, such as your wthnic group. The issue of ethnocentric bias can be seen in Gomels study. Gomel looked at a workplace in which smoking had been banned and how this related to the reduction in substance use (smoking). The study can be een to be ethnocentrically biased because it was conducted in one workplace in Australia. Ethnocentric bias can result in research that is not applicable to the larger population as the results from this study may not be found to be the same if it was conducted in Australia for example. c) Many people resolve to give up smoking each new year. With middle aged women specifically in mind suggest one psychological technique which would be useful to help them in their attempts to stop smoking. Give reasons for your answer. In attempting to stop smoking one technique which may be useful is the use of self help groups. Self help groups are support circles where each member is also attempting to quit smoking. As Moolchan discovered in his study, women who smoke are likely to be socially skilled and confident and so may find a group therapy useful where they can support and gain support from other women in the group who are in a socially similar position to themselves. Group therapy may also be effective in helping a middle aged woman quit smoking as she may make friends with people in the group and thus turn to them for support as she would turn to a friend outside of the group. The clear difference however would be that the person in the group would be going through the same experience as the middle aged woman and so would be able to identify with her. Those in the support group may also acknowledge an element of competition each one wanting to continue to stop smoking so they remain in the group. For this variety of reasons a support group is likely to be the most effective strategy in supporting a middle aged woman who is giving up smoking.

Americas Abortion Debate Essay -- Abortion

Abortion is one of the most controversial issues in the United States today. According to oxford dictionary, abortion is the deliberate termination of a human pregnancy, most often performed during the first 28 weeks. The two factions involved in this controversy are poles apart in their views on abortion: where as the pro-choice movement contends that a woman’s right to abortion is absolute, the pro-life movement asserts that a fetus’s right to life is indisputable. The argument has become very pronounced since the U.S Supreme Court ruling in the year 1973 in Roe V. Wade, which legalized abortion. According to the ruling, a woman’s right to abortion outweighed the rights of a nonviable fetus and prohibited the State interference. In addition to the fact that pro-choicers have always praised Roe for recognizing that a woman’s right to control her body is more important than a fetus’s right to life, this idea is also supported by different organizat ions such as Alan Guttmatcher Institute (AGI) whose mission is â€Å"to protect the reproductive choices of all women and men in the United States and throughout the world.† (Par 1) While some people believe that abortion is immoral others argue that it is a woman’s right to have full control of her body. A typical pro-life believer argues that fetuses posses a characteristic such as a genetic code that is both necessary and sufficient for being human. This idea is mostly propagated by the principle of the Roman Catholic Church â€Å"In 1995 Pope John Paul II officially condemned abortion in his â€Å"Evangelium Vitae,† calling it a villainous crime that kills an innocent human being† (Knapp Pg 16) and supported by many fundamentalist protestants groups, though not by majority of Catholics an... ...ciples, the pro-choice position is certainly not obviously wrong. Consequently, when abortion advocates try to make the argument more or less probable, they call for pro-life citizens to completely cease from bringing the legitimate idea of freedom to life for the purpose of protecting the unborn from harm, these abortion-choice supporters are by so doing encouraging their fellow pro-choice citizens to silently and politely remain firm that the unborn are not fully fledged members of the human community therefore are not entitled to protection by the state. To the opponent of abortion, this request hardly seems tolerant or liberating. Works Cited Francis J. Beckwith Defending Life: A Moral and Legal Case Against Abortion Choice. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Lynette Knapp: The Abortion Controversy San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2001

Define Project

[pic] Topic 1: Define project What is a project? A project is the defined set of planned and managed activities carried out for a period of time — with a defined start and end date. A project is designed to yield a set of products or services as agreed with the project clients and stakeholders. It has a lifecycle which is the process by which the project is undertaken. Five features that differentiate projects from ordinary work are that they: †¢ have defined beginning and end dates †¢ have a unique purpose with specific objectives that meet the client goals and requirements within specified quality and performance criteria use resources, such as money, time, people and equipment that have been allocated to the project †¢ usually follow a planned and structured approach to meet their objectives †¢ have a primary sponsor or stakeholder who provides direction and funding. Projects can be simple and easily handled by one person or large and complex projects re quiring many resources and the specialised skills of a dedicated project manager and team. What is project management? Project management is about striving to meet specific time, cost, quality and resource objectives.At the same time it must facilitate the entire process so as to meet the needs and expectations of all people affected by project activities. Project management is about making change through the use of techniques, tools and resources that manage change throughout the life of the project. Project management involves the project manager and team applying knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to achieve the requirements of the project. It is a continuous process utilising planning, organising, monitoring and controlling in all aspects of the project to achieve external and internal objectives.It also encompasses the closure and evaluation of the project. Managing a project includes: ? identifying the requirements of the project ? establishing clear and achievable objectives ? balancing demands for quality, scope, time and cost ? adapting the specifications, plans and approach to meet the different concerns and expectations of the stakeholders ? closing and evaluating the project Below is an overview of the aspects of a project that need to be determined and developed. What to determine |What this involves | |Project scope |Identify and plan the objectives, desired outcomes, limitations and budget. | |Timeline |Determine the time within which the project is to be completed—involves | | |planning, estimating, scheduling and controlling. A schedule for the life of | | |the project is developed. |Costs |Determine the costs associated with successful projection completion. This | | |involves cost estimation and forecasting, cost budgeting, cost control and cost| | |applications. A budget is developed. | |Quality processes, systems and outcomes |Construct a quality management plan. | |Human resources |Human resources are re quired for project tasks, eg for organising resources, | | |managing staff performance and leading the project team, etc.A human resource | | |management plan is developed. | |Communications processes |Ensure all parties with an interest in the project are kept up-to-date | | |throughout the life of the project. A communications plan is constructed. | |Risks and any uncertainty with processes |Risks need to be: identified, analysed, evaluated, treated, monitored and | |or achievement |reviewed.A risk management plan is constructed. | |Goods, services or support |Identify what goods, services and support are needed and determine who will be | | |the best person (or people) to provide these. It also involves developing | | |effective interpersonal relationships and finalising any contracts or | | |understandings. The procurement needs for the project will need to be outlined. |All the elements outlined above will need to be integrated with each other in line with the process and proce dures of the organisation. This involves acknowledging and considering how the different functions within the project interrelate — as well as how the project interrelates with the organisation. The project lifecycle What is a project’s lifecycle — or the process by which it is undertaken? The phases in a project lifecycle are: †¢ Phase 1: Initiation and concept †¢ Phase 2: Planning and development †¢ Phase 3: Implementation and execution Phase 4: Finalisation and review. The Initiation and Concept Phase In the initiation phase of a project, the following needs to occur: †¢ Write a description of the project concept/background †¢ Identify stakeholders †¢ Identify project objectives †¢ Define the scope of work to be carried out †¢ Agree to the development of the broad strategy — which identifies preliminary agreed phases, milestones and deliverables †¢ Identify constraints and assumptions †¢ Develop the pre liminary budget †¢ Develop the preliminary risks assessment Develop the broad quality plan †¢ Develop a broad communications plan. |Workplace Learning Activity | |Find out about the range in the types of projects that are managed by your organisation (or one with which you are familiar). | |How do they vary in size and complexity as well as in their aims and objectives? | |Talk to your mentor or colleagues with project management experience about their projects (current or completed). |Begin with general questions such as: | |What do they see as the characteristics of a project? | |How was the project initiated? | The project manager With responsibilities spanning the entire lifecycle of the project — from its planning, implementation, monitoring and control through to its closing and evaluation — the project manager is key to the success of the project. The project manager must have the ability to: build relationships with all key stakeholders, including man agement, clients, suppliers as well as team members †¢ build and lead an effective team — this will include motivating team members (eg by reinforcing to each person that they play an important role and by being optimistic and enthusiastic) †¢ manage interpersonal relationships †¢ problem-solve and make decisions †¢ negotiate with others to meet their needs as well as those of the project †¢ empathise with clients †¢ develop a vision for the project that can be sold to the team and key stakeholders †¢ exercise a high degree of professionalism †¢ communicate with all stakeholders provide reports as required. |Workplace Learning Activity | |If you are already involved in setting up a project in your workplace, clarify the following: | |What is the role of the project manager? | |If you are not the project manager, what is your role within the project? | |Here is another suggestion for workplace learning: | |Interview a project manager to find out what their role was within a recently-completed project.Ask them about the: | |characteristics of a good project manager | |skills and knowledge they needed in order to function as an effective project manager. | Define project stakeholders Knowing who the stakeholders are is critical to any project. Stakeholders are individuals or organisations who have an interest in, or involvement with, the project. Stakeholders have an impact on or are affected by the project. To ensure support for a project, the stakeholders must be identified as early as possible in a project lifecycle.Project team responsibilities As the project manager, you need to clearly identify the limits of each project team member’s responsibility. Questions to ask include: †¢ What is the overall responsibility of the project manager? †¢ What is the responsibility of individual project team members? †¢ How will changes to project specifications, deliverables, scheduling, resource usage, and other aspects of the project be managed? †¢ Who is responsible for each of these? Each team member should have clearly defined responsibilities to ensure that they understand what they are—and are not—allowed to do.Otherwise one person may go off and approve changes that have not been authorised and cause the project to go in the wrong direction, go over budget, or eventually fail. Project reporting requirements When you are developing or reviewing the scope of a project, make sure to include reporting guidelines, such as when to report to the project sponsor, stakeholders and project team. (It should be on a regular basis. ) There are a few different ways to meet reporting requirements; you may need to use several of these methods together: hold project team meetings where each team member reports on the progress of the project †¢ hold a sponsor or stakeholder meetings where you report on the progress of the project †¢ provide written reports †¢ send email reports †¢ use the reporting facilities in any project management software you may be using. Reporting requirements for a project are put in place to ensure that all those involved are kept up-to-date with the project’s progress. They also provide the opportunity to report any changes or unforeseen events. This means that such things can be rectified quickly—before they get out of hand.The important thing is that everyone involved has a clear understanding of their reporting requirements, and that these requirements are met. |Workplace Learning Activity | |If you are already involved in setting up a project in your workplace, keep notes on the process of working with | |stakeholders. To get you started with your notes, here are some questions that you could address: | |Who are the stakeholders? | |What are the issues that need to be clarified with stakeholders? |What are the benefits of involving stakeholders? | |What are the rights and obligations o f stakeholders? If you are a project manager (or managing part of the project), what are| |your obligations to stakeholders? | Access project scope and other relevant information Before commencing a project, there is a need for you to get a good understanding of the exact objectives of the project and the scope of work required to be done in order to achieve each objective. The following will need to be understood: †¢ Why is the project being undertaken? †¢ Are there limitations that may restrict the way the project is carried out? Exactly what is expected to done (or achieved)? What is not expected to be done? †¢ Will adequate resources be available? †¢ Where and when will resources be needed? †¢ What is the cost of the project? †¢ Is the client (or organisation) comfortable with the suggested strategy for spending the project money? The project manager will also need an agreement about the support that will be given to the project. Prepare the project scope definition and scope document The project manager may be asked to prepare the scope definition and scope document or be given one to follow.The project manager is usually involved in developing the scope. The scope should be as specific as possible and tell all stakeholders exactly what is to be achieved on completion of the project. |Scope document — checklist | |The following should always be included in a scope document: | |Background — overview of project | |Objectives to be achieved — i. . both primary and secondary objectives | |Scope definition — as stated above the scope should be as specific as possible and tell all stakeholders exactly what is to| |be achieved on completion of the project | |Broad strategy for achievement of projects — phases | |Constraints around which project is to work | |Exclusions showing what work is not to be done |Assumptions and questions to be answered | |Related projects that may have an effect on yo ur project — or projects that may be affected by your project | |Preliminary budget | |Preliminary risk assessment | |Broad plans for communication and quality (may also be included). | A scope document shows the scope, or extent, of a project.Let’s look at the key sections and an example of a project scope document. [pic] The things you will find in a project scope document Key sections of a scope document |Section |Details | |Scope statement or definition |This clearly states the project goal, objectives and deliverables. If it is not | | |specified in the scope statement then it is outside the scope of the project and | | |is not relevant.Project tasks should only address work that is relevant to the | | |project goal and objectives. | |Project constraints |These are any limiting factors that prevent the project from moving in a | | |particular path. Examples include: | | |You have dependent tasks that impact on specific areas of the project, for | | |example, tasks that cannot begin unless another one has started. | |You have a deadline that cannot be changed. | | |The implementation work for a system upgrade can only be done on the weekend, | | |when staff are not at work. | |Assumptions |These are aspects that the project manager builds into the scope document to | | |allow for any uncertainties that may occur. Examples of assumptions include: | | |Fifteen new personal computers need to be purchased for the project. | |All staff need yearly training in OHS. | | |All resources for the project will be sourced from outside of the company. | |Tasks list |You need to specify a list of tasks (and deliverables) to be achieved during the | | |project. They are all the activities that need to take place to bring the project| | |to completion.The deliverables include all the documentation, reports, contracts| | |and products that need to be produced and signed-off on by those in authority. | |Estimates (cost, time and |You need to make initial estima tes in relation to cost, time and human resource | |human resources) |requirements. These identify the boundaries of the project to enable you to | | |expand into the more detailed estimates that are needed to develop the full | | |project plan. |Contract statement |This will include the names of those authorised to initiate contract work, sign | | |contracts and completion acceptances. It also includes any contractual | | |limitations and penalty statements for possible contract variations. (Variations | | |and penalties apply equally to the client and providers. ) | The following is an example of a scope document, in this case for a project to install animal litter bins in local parks. Sample scope document Project Scope | |Project Information (Please complete all) | |Project Sponsor |Project Name | |Bob Smith |Animal litter bins | |General Manager | | |Sponsoring Department/Client | |Directive from Council Meeting | |Parks & Gardens | |Project Leader | |Arens Sirkel | |Sco pe the project | |The project will encompass the installing of animal litter bins and bag dispensers in all council parks. The bins | |and bags are to be purchased from Animal Litter Limited after recommendations from neighbouring councils.The | |project is to be completed within six weeks at an all up cost not exceeding $24,000. | |Description of the project | |(What is the vision? What will the finished product look like? ) | |The animal litter bins will be installed in prominent locations in each park, while also being close to entrances | |to allow efficient removal of waste by our waste management contractor. | |Identify the strategic objectives which relate to this project | |To reduce animal litter by encouraging owners to pick up after their pets. |Identify the main target audience | |Pet owners. | |What are the intended outcomes/deliverables of the project? | |That pet owners will use the bags provided to clean up their pets’ litter and deposit the bags in the bins | |provided, other bins or their own bins at home. | |What are the particular aspects of the project? | |Installation of bins. | |Other comments | |Collection of waste and replacement of bags has been contracted to our waste management contractor. | |A public awareness campaign will be conducted by council after the bins have been installed. |Proposed project timeline | | |Dates/Time |Notes | |Project lifespan: include dates or total time | | | |required for completion | | | |Phase 1: Scoping and feasibility |not required |Directed by council, scoped| | | |by General Manager | |Phase 2: Planning |4 days | | |Phase 3: Implementation |3 weeks | | |Phase 4: Evaluation |2 days | | |Proposed budget | |Detail proposed budget or financial constraints for the project. |Overtime wages/contractor payments $ 7,000 | |Bins & posts $ 15,000 | |Materials (cement, etc) $ 2,000 | |Scope signoff | | | |This scope has been approved by: Bob Smith_____________________ Project Sponsor | | | |Depa rtment: General Manager Date_____/_____/_____ | Use the scope document during the whole project It is a good idea to revisit the scope document while the project is running, to check that the project is meeting its objectives and to make sure that activities are within its scope. During the plan phase you should use the scope document as a basis to expand into a detailed activity list of the project deliverables. Workplace Learning Activity | |If you are already involved in a team that is setting up a project in your workplace, keep notes on the scoping process. To | |get you started with your notes, here are questions you could address: | |What does a project scope define? | |Who was involved in identifying the scope? What tools were used to describe the scope? | |What was involved in risk management planning? | |How will the scope provide a foundation for subsequent steps in the project? | |How was it carried out? How long did the process take? |Here are other suggestions for work place learning: | |Find out about project scoping procedures in your organisation (or one you are familiar with) | |Ask your mentor or colleagues involved in project scoping if you could sit in on their scoping meetings or join the project | |scoping team. | |Speak to people in your organisation about how the scope for their projects was identified. | |Identify a small project that you could manage as part of your work — and develop a scope definition (this could come in | |useful for you later). | Seek clarification of issues related to the project and parameters With any project, there is a project sponsor (or sponsors) — a person or organisation who might be a backer or financier.A project sponsor’s role includes the ones below: †¢ provides a single point of reference regarding management decisions †¢ reports project progress to boards and top management. †¢ provides clarification of any issues related to project and project parameters. Note t hat there may also be other stakeholders, eg, the main client, funding body, or manager who may also need to be contacted for clarification at regular intervals throughout a project. |Workplace Learning Activity | |If you are already involved in a project team in your workplace, answer the questions below.Alternatively, obtain answers to| |these questions from a project manager in your organisation (or one you are familiar with). | |Who is the project sponsor (or sponsors)? | |What are the types of issues would you need to clarify with a sponsor? | |Apart from the sponsor, are there any other stakeholders who you can approach for clarification about aspects of the project? | Clarify relationship of the project to other projects and the organisation’s objectives It is important that the project manager and team understand how the project they are working on fits in with the organisation and other related projects that may be in progress. In your workplace, you will probably fi nd that there are a number of projects that are running concurrently.They may be completely self-contained projects — with no one project having any bearing on any of the others. However, the following may also occur: †¢ Your project may need to be completed before another can begin — or vice versa (your project will not be able to begin before the other project is completed) †¢ Allocation of resources such as staff, funds and equipment, may be affected, eg there may be tools or templates developed for one project that will be used or adapted for the new project. It is good policy to establish a relationship with other project managers especially where the project they are working on has bearing on the new project. Workplace Learning Activity | |If you are already involved in a project team within in your workplace, answer these questions below. | |How does the project you are working on fit in the organisation? | |What other projects are related to this proj ect and how? | |Here is another suggestion: | |Interview a project manager to find out how they identified other projects that had a bearing on the project they have | |recently completed in the workplace. | |. | Determine and access available resources to undertake the projectThe resources that are generally utilised within projects are: †¢ people — internal staff and sometimes contractors and other staff external to the organisation †¢ tools and equipment †¢ time †¢ raw materials †¢ money. In order to identify the resources needed for a project, you will, firstly, need to determine what tasks will need to be carried out to arrive at the project outcomes. Achieving your project objectives means blending activities and tasks to be carried out with time and funds available. The ‘work breakdown structure’ (WBS) is a complete list of all the work that needs to be carried out to achieve the milestones, phases and/or objectives of the project. A WBS will allow the planning sequence of activities and tasks and where they have a dependency on other activities and tasks. From the WBS, the schedule, resources and the cost of the project will be determined. A WBS will also lead to an understanding of the overall project. A WBS can take one of two approaches — either a top-down approach or a bottom-up approach: †¢ Top-down approach — The objectives are analysed to determine the phases the project must go through as it moves towards completion. A logical break-up of phases might be on the basis of major decision points or milestones. †¢ Bottom-up approach — This approach is a reverse of the top-down approach. Tasks to meet the project objective are determined and grouped with related tasks to form activities.Activities are then grouped to form project phases in logical sequences. This allows resources, duration and dependencies to be allocated at the task level. The cost of the individual resources will need to be calculated in order to determine the overall costs and budget for the project. How long a task will take will affect the cost of the project. Once the WBS is determined, calculations can be made for each task incorporating time allotted for each task as well as the resources and staff required. A dollar value is applied to each task and the sum total becomes the budget. In the initiation phase, a preliminary budget is prepared for the resources required and this is then detailed fully in the project plan. Workplace Learning Activity | |If you are already involved in a project team in your workplace, answer the questions below. | |How were the resources identified for the project? | |What resources will be required for this project? | |What staff (and skills) is required for the project? | |How did you prepare the work breakdown structure? | |Here are other suggestions for workplace learning: | |Interview a project manager to find out how they identified the resourc es for the project they have recently completed in the| |workplace.Also ask of the project manager the questions outlined above. | |View documentation that was compiled to identify resources within a project. | More resources For a comprehensive list of current readings and websites for Topic 1 – Define Project – please see the OLS for this unit and see Additional Resources and Websites. ———————– Contents What is a project? 1 Define project stakeholders 6 Access project scope and other relevant documentation 8 Seek clarification of issues relating to the project and parameters 15 Clarify relationship of project to other projects and organisation’s objectives 16 Determine and access available resources to undertake project 18 More resources 19

Analysis Of Mary Shelley s Frankenstein - 1554 Words

Madison Franklin English 203 Echols 20 October 2014 Revenge on Mankind In Mary Shelly’s Frankenstein, the being created by Victor Frankenstein has been cast out due to his horrid appearance and the gruesome way in which he came to be. The monster finds refuge in a hovel next to a small family living in Germany. One day he notices a leather satchel in the yard, he quickly gathers the satchel and its contents and returns to his hovel. The bag contained strictly books, one of them being John Milton’s â€Å"Paradise Lost†. After observing the family for some time, he attains the ability to read and speak. With this ability he reads all the books within the bag, and feels a profound connection between himself and Satan in â€Å"Paradise Lost†. Similar to the monster, Satan was cast out of heaven after betraying God by planning a revolt against him. Both characters were formed, cast out, and betrayed by their creators, due to differing circumstances. However, in the wake of their rejections they both vow revenge on mankind. Victor Frankenstein creates his creature in a makeshift laboratory that he constructed in his apartment. He gathered bits and pieces of body parts from multiple corpses to produce the ideal being. However, it caused Victor a great deal of agony to see the creature in its animate form. The creature was immediately cast out by Victor and fled from the apartment and into the forest. The creature seeks refuge in the hovel, and through a peephole in the wall;Show MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Mary Shelley s Frankenstein1411 Words   |  6 PagesIn the early 1800s Mary Shelley set pen to a paper and started to develop a novel that little to her knowledge would become world renowned. In 1818 she finished and published the novel to sell to the European public. 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